The Historic Fight over the Mountain of Light

Its only a hard lump of carbon, after all, yet the Koh-i-Noor diamond exerts a magnetic pull on those who behold it. Once the largest diamond in the world, it has passed from one famous ruling family to another as the tides of war and fortune have turned one way and another over the past 800 or more years. Today, it is held by the British, a spoil of their colonial wars, but the descendant states of all its previous owners claim this controversial stone as their own. Origins of the Koh i Noor Indian legend holds that the Koh-i-Noors history stretches back an incredible 5,000 years, and that the gem has been part of royal hoards since around the year 3,000 BCE.   It seems more likely, however, that these legends conflate various royal gems from different millennia, and that the Koh-i-Noor itself was probably discovered in the 1200s CE. Most scholars believe that the Koh-i-Noor was discovered during the reign of the Kakatiya Dynasty in the Deccan Plateau of southern India (1163 - 1323).   A precursor to the Vijayanagara Empire, Kakatiya ruled over much of present-day Andhra Pradesh, site of the Kollur Mine.   It was from this mine that the Koh-i-Noor, or Mountain of Light, likely came.    In 1310, the Khilji Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Kakatiya kingdom, and demanded various items as tribute payments.   Kakatiyas doomed ruler Prataparudra was forced to send tribute north, including 100 elephants, 20,000 horses - and the Koh-i-Noor diamond.   Thus, the Kakatiya lost their most stunning jewel after less than 100 years of ownership, in all likelihood, and their entire kingdom would fall just 13 years later. The Khilji family did not enjoy this particular spoil of war for long, however.   In 1320, they were overthrown by the Tughluq clan, the third of five families that would rule the Delhi Sultanate. Each of the succeeding Delhi Sultanate clans would possess the Koh-i-Noor, but none of them held power for long. This account of the stones origins and early history is the most widely accepted today, but there are other theories as well. The Mughal emperor Babur, for one, states in his memoir, the  Baburnama,  that during the 13th century the stone was the property of the Raja of Gwalior, who ruled a district of Madhya Pradesh in central India.   To this day, we are not entirely certain if the stone came from Andhra Pradesh, from Madhya Pradesh, or from Andhra Pradesh via Madhya Pradesh. The Diamond of Babur A prince from a Turco-Mongol family in what is now Uzbekistan, Babur defeated the Delhi Sultanate and conquered northern India in 1526.   He founded the great Mughal Dynasty, which ruled northern India until 1857.   Along with the Delhi Sultanates lands, the magnificent diamond passed to him, and he modestly named it the Diamond of Babur.   His family would keep the gem for just over two hundred rather tumultuous years. The fifth Mughal emperor was Shah Jahan, justly famous for ordering the construction of the Taj Mahal.   Shah Jahan also had an elaborate jeweled gold throne built, called the Peacock Throne. Crusted with countless diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and pearls, the throne contained a significant portion of the Mughal Empires fabulous wealth.   Two golden peacocks adorned the throne; one peacocks eye was the Koh-i-Noor or Diamond of Babur; the other was the Akbar Shah Diamond. Shah Jahans son and successor, Aurangzeb (reigned 1661-1707), was persuaded during his reign to allow a Venetian carver called Hortenso Borgia to cut the Diamond of Babur.   Borgia made a complete hash of the job, reducing what had been the worlds largest diamond from 793 carats to 186 carats. The finished product was quite irregular in shape and did not shine to anything like its full potential.   Furious, Aurangzeb fined the Venetian 10,000 rupees for spoiling the stone. Aurangzeb was the last of the Great Mughals; his successors were lesser men, and Mughal power began its slow fade. One weak emperor after another sit on the Peacock Throne for a month or a year before being assassinated or deposed. Mughal India and all of its wealth were vulnerable, including the Diamond of Babur, a tempting target for neighboring nations. Persia Takes the Diamond In 1739, the Shah of Persia, Nader Shah, invaded India and won a great victory over Mughal forces at the Battle of Karnal. He and his army then sacked Delhi, raiding the treasury and stealing the Peacock Throne.   Its not entirely clear where the Diamond of Babur was at the time, but it may have been in the Badshahi Mosque, where Aurangzeb had deposited it after Borgia cut it. When the Shah saw the Diamond of Babur, he is supposed to have cried out, Koh-i-Noor! or Mountain of Light!, giving the stone its current name.   In all, the Persians seized plunder estimated at the equivalent of 18.4 billions dollars US in todays money from India.   Of all the loot, Nader Shah seems to have loved the Koh-i-Noor the most. Afghanistan Gets the Diamond Like others before him, though, the Shah did not get to enjoy his diamond for long.   He was assassinated in 1747, and the Koh-i-Noor passed to one of his generals, Ahmad Shah Durrani.   The general would go on to conquer Afghanistan later that same year, founding the Durrani Dynasty and ruling as its first emir. Zaman Shah Durrani, the third Durrani king, was overthrown and imprisoned in 1801 by his younger brother, Shah Shuja.   Shah Shuja was infuriated when he inspected his brothers treasury, and realized that the Durranis most prized possession, the Koh-i-Noor, was missing.   Zaman had taken the stone to prison with him, and hollowed out a hiding place for it in the wall of his cell.   Shah Shuja offered him his freedom in return for the stone, and Zaman Shah took the deal. This magnificent stone first came to British attention in 1808, when Mountstuart Elphinstone visited the court of Shah Shujah Durrani in Peshawar.   The British were in Afghanistan to negotiate an alliance against Russia, as part of the Great Game.   Shah Shujah wore the Koh-i-Noor embedded in a bracelet during the negotiations, and Sir Herbert Edwardes noted that, It seemed as if the Koh-i-noor carried with it the sovereignty of Hindostan, because whichever family that possessed it so often prevailed in battle. I would argue that in fact, causation flowed in the opposite direction - whoever was winning the most battles usually nabbed the diamond.   It would not be long before yet another ruler would take the Koh-i-Noor for his own. The Sikhs Grab the Diamond In 1809, Shah Shujah Durrani got overthrown in turn by another brother, Mahmud Shah Durrani.   Shah Shujah had to flee into exile in India, but he managed to escape with the Koh-i-Noor.   He ended up a prisoner of the Sikh ruler Maharaja Ranjit Singh, known as the Lion of the Punjab.   Singh ruled from the city of Lahore, in what is now Pakistan. Ranjit Singh soon learned that his royal prisoner had the diamond. Shah Shujah was stubborn, and did not want to relinquish his treasure.   However, by 1814, he felt that the time was ripe for him to escape from the Sikh kingdom, raise an army, and try to retake the Afghan throne.   He agreed to give Ranjit Singh the Koh-i-Noor in return for his freedom. Britain Seizes the Mountain of Light After Ranjit Singhs death in 1839, the Koh-i-Noor was passed from one person to another in his family for about a decade. It ended up as the property of the child king Maharaja Dulip Singh.   In 1849, the British East India Company prevailed in the Second Angol-Sikh War and seized control of the Punjab from the young king, handing all political power to the British Resident.    In the Last Treaty of Lahore (1849), it specifies that the Koh-i-Noor Diamond is to be presented to Queen Victoria, not as a gift from the East India Company, but as a spoil of war.   The British also took 13-year-old Dulip Singh to Britain, where he was raised as a ward of Queen Victoria.   He reportedly once asked to have the diamond returned, but received no answer from the Queen. The Koh-i-Noor was a star attraction of Londons Great Exhibition in 1851.   Despite the fact that its display case prevented any light from striking its facets, so it essentially looked like a lump of dull glass, thousands of people waited patiently for a chance to gaze at the diamond each day.   The stone received such poor reviews that Prince Albert, Queen Victorias husband, decided to have it recut in 1852.    The British government appointed Dutch master diamond-cutter, Levie Benjamin Voorzanger, to recut the famous stone.   Once again, the cutter drastically reduced the size of the stone, this time from 186 carats to 105.6 carats.   Voorzanger had not planned to cut away so much of the diamond, but discovered flaws that needed to be excised in order to achieve maximum sparkle.    Prior to Victorias death, the diamond was her personal property; after her lifetime, it became part of the Crown Jewels.   Victoria wore it in a brooch, but later queens wore it as the front piece of their crowns.   The British superstitiously believed that the Koh-i-Noor brought bad fortune to any male who possessed it (given its history), so only female royals have worn it.   It was set into the coronation crown of Queen Alexandra in 1902, then was moved into Queen Marys crown in 1911.   In 1937, it was added to the coronation crown of Elizabeth, the mother of the current monarch, Queen Elizabeth II.   It remains in the Queen Mothers crown to this day, and was on display during her funeral in 2002. Modern-Day Ownership Dispute Today, the Koh-i-Noor diamond is still a spoil of Britains colonial wars.   It rests in the Tower of London along with the other Crown Jewels.    As soon as India gained its independence in 1947, the new government made its first request for the return of the Koh-i-Noor. It renewed its request in 1953, when Queen Elizabeth II was crowned. Indias parliament once again asked for the gem in 2000. Britain has refused to consider Indias claims. In 1976, Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto asked that Britain return the diamond to Pakistan, since it had been taken from the Maharaja of Lahore.   This prompted Iran to assert its own claim.   In 2000, Afghanistans Taliban regime noted that the gem had come from Afghanistan to British India, and asked to have it returned to them instead of Iran, India, or Pakistan. Britain responds that because so many other nations have claimed the Koh-i-Noor, none of them have a better claim to it than Britains.   However, it seems pretty clear to me that the stone originated in India, spent most of its history in India, and really should belong to that nation.

Organizational Communication - 3014 Words

Organizational Communication Organizational Communication is probably the most important type of interpersonal communication a person has to perform in his or her adult life. Communicating with others in the work environment is a process that can not be looked at as a small one, but as a very complex and of utmost significance to a persons life as a whole. We all know communication is a key factor in everyones life, and communicating in the work place is just a larger key for cultural expectance and normalcy. Everyone communicates with each other in all different aspects of society. When you are younger, school is the main agency for social communication and in later life it is the job you occupy. It is socially stated and seen as a†¦show more content†¦But lets move on from that stage into the second one. Lets say you decide to enter the job and proceed with the socialization process. The second stage is called the encounter stage, or the breaking in period. This is in most cases the most difficult sta ge to go through. This is the stage where you start to understand the attitude, behavior, and communication type in your work environment. In early Socialization its very tough to know what to expect. Go back to remembering that first day on the new job. You dont know how the people act, or how they communicate with each other. There are many factors to take into consideration. The only way to learn is time. You not only have to learn how they communicate in business issues but personal issues as well. Face it, the work place is a social agent. Work is not always the number one thing on everyones mind. Social personal communication behaviors are a very important part of the process of organizational communication. The major thing in the process is that a basic interest line is already set in the simple fact that you are co-workers, so you must communicate, and therefore will have a common issues to communicate about. In early part of this stage you try to incorporate past job experi ences to use as a communication link. That is what you originally try to base the pattern ofShow MoreRelatedHistory of Organizational Communication1537 Words   |  7 Pagesof the Field Reflection Paper | What is organizational communication? As a field organizational communication studies exactly what it sounds like the communication in organization. Defining the particulars of this often comes down to the researcher and the perspective that skew their opinions on the field. These subtle differences are why it takes Papa, Daniels and Spiker almost 16 pages to express their definition of their field of study. The organizational experiences of an individual have a hugeRead MoreOrganizational Communication : An Organization1591 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction The way in which individuals in an organization communicate with each other is what organizational communication is referred as in the simplest of terms. 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Clothing and Fashion Free Essays

Every person nurtures an innate desire of looking good and feel ‘accepted’ in the socio-economic circle. The word fashion instantaneously brings to mind a flash of colour with a dash of glamour. Women are taking to fashion in a big way, and are experimenting with different looks, styles, and textures. We will write a custom essay sample on Clothing and Fashion or any similar topic only for you Order Now Fashion plays an increasingly important role in an indivi ­dual’s life because it is considered as a means of self-expression. The garments and accessories that man or women wear, help them to identify with a group of others-whether it is a lifestyle, profession, a religion, or an attitude. Thus, the term ‘fashion’ has become synonymous with the overall growth of the country as well. Several factors contribute to the evolution of fashion as a whole. It is a widely accepted fact that the rich and the famous, and the political figures and royalty have always moved the seasonal trends of fashion. The advertising media also contributes equally to update us about the daily style checks. Fashion in India, a land rich in culture and tradition, has evolved through the centuries. This country, rich in culture represents a kaleidoscope of changing trends and traditions. Here, clothes perform different functions depending on the occasion. Be it festivals, parties, profession, or just a matter of reflecting attitude †¦ fashion is simply ‘in’. Right from women who sport a dash of vermilion in the parting of their hair, to professionals on the go who wield the ladle and the laptop with equal ease, fashion forms an integral 92 Top School Essays part of their lives. Today, fashion does not necessarily mean glamour, or the urge to follow the current trends. It is more a way of life, a reflection of inner beauty, where the intellect shines through, complete with comfort quotient. Fashion not only highlights the social history and the needs of person but also the overall cultural aesthetic of the various periods. The evolution of fashion dates back to several hundred years and as our attitude and culture change, fashion comes along with it. In India, the fashion scenario was different in different political periods. During the British rule in India, the fashion trend within high society was strongly influenced by the British fashion style and western clothes became a status symbol in India. Again during 1930s, emergence of different ideologies like communism, socialism and fascism imparted a more feminine and conservative touch to the women’s fashion. However, the period also witnessed the predominance of body hugging dresses with dark shades. The foundation of the Indian cinema also proved to be the strongest influence on revolutionising the fashion scene in those days. 1940s was a decade marked by the second World War and the ensuing independence of India. Hence, the period portrayed relatively simple yet functional women’s clothing. During 1950s, the advent of art colleges and schools led to popularity of narrow waist and balloon skirts with bouncing patterns. Also, the adoption of khadi by Mahatma Gandhi made khadi garments a rage among women. In the 1960s, the sweeping changes in fashion and lifestyle resulted in highly versatile fashion trends. In 1970s, the traditional materials were exported in bulk to other nations. Thus, excess of export materials were sold within the country itself, which resulted in popularity of international fashion in India. During 1980s and 90s, the advent of television and other advertising means gave a new edge to the Indian fashion scene. Influenced by ideas of several foreign designers, new design and pattern were introduced into garments. During these periods, power dressing and corporate look were the style statement. The revival of ethnicity was also witnessed in these decades. Fashion trends keep changing and most fashion divas and models are the one to make them. The youth is a major follower of fashion trends. Fashion trends also get influenced from Bollywood as well as Hollywood. Metros like Mumbai and Delhi witness the quick changes in fashion especially in college going crowds. India has a rich and varied textile heritage, where each region of India has its own unique native costume and traditional attire. While traditional clothes are still worn in most of rural India, urban India is changing rapidly, with international fashion trends reflected by the young and glamorous, in the cosmopolitan metros of India. Fashion in India is a vibrant scene, a nascent industry and a colourful and glamorous world where designers and models start new trends every day. While previously a master weaver was recognised for his skill, today a fashion designer is celebrated for his or her creativity. Young urban Indians can choose from the best of East and West as Indian fashion designers are inspired by both Indian and western styles. This fusion of fashion can be seen Fashion in India is also beginning to make its mark on the international scene, as accessories such as bindis (red dots worn on the forehead), mehendi (designs made by applying henna to the palms of the hands and other parts of the body) and bangles, have gained international popularity, after being worn by fashion icons, like the pop singers Madonna and Gwen Stefani. In India, fashion has become a growing industry with international events such as the India Fashion Week and annual shows by fashion designers in the major cities of India. The victories of a number of Indian beauty queens in International events such as the Miss World and Miss Universe contests have also made Indian models recognised worldwide. Fashion designers such as Ritu Kumar, Ritu Beri, Rohit Bal, Rina Dhaka, Muzaffar Ah, Satya Paul, Abraham and Thakore, Tarun Tahiliani, JJ Valaya and Manish Malhotra are some of the well- known fashion designers in India. In India, fashion covers a whole range of clothing from ornate clothes designed for wedding ceremonies to pret lines, sports wear and casual wear. Traditional Indian techniques of embroidery such as chikhan, crewel and zardosi, and traditional weaves and fabrics have been used by Indian designers to create Indo-western clothing in a fusion of the best of East and West. Traditional costumes in India vary widely depending on the climate and natural fibres grown in a region. In the cold northern state of Jammu and Kashmir, people wear a thick loose shirt called a phiran to keep them warm. In the tropical warmth of south India, men wear a sarong like garment called the mundu, while women drape 5 metres of cloth around their bodies in the graceful folds of the saree. Sarees are woven in silk, cotton and artificial fibres. Kanjivaram, Mysore, Paithani, Pochampalli, Jamdani, Balucheri, Benarasi, Sambalpuri, Bandhini are some varieties of beautiful sarees from different regions of India. In the dry regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat men wrap and twist a length of cloth in the form of a dhoti around their lower limbs and a shirt-like kurta above. Colourful turbans complete the picture. In the northeastern regions the tribal communities such as Khasis, Nagas, Mizos, Manipuris and Arunachalis wear colourful woven sarong-like clothing and woven shawls that represent the identity of each tribal group. In urban India the salwar kameez and the churidar kameez, are commonly work by women and the saree is worn on formal occasions. Men wear kurtas and pajamas, or a sherwani for formal wear. Men commonly wear western wear such as shirts and trousers across India. The young and the young at heart wear Jeans, T-shirts, capris, Bermudas and various kinds of casual clothing, which are the trendsetters of fashion in India. Comparing the past and the present, fashion for people in India has changed over the decades. Not only India, but also the whole world has witnessed changes in fashion statements for both men and women How to cite Clothing and Fashion, Essay examples

Business Project Plan Production of Leggings

Question: Discuss about the Business Project Plan for Production of Leggings. Answer: Introduction: Here the production of leggings is taken as the project that is to be manage with the help of project management plan ( PMP ). Royal knit Pvt. Ltd. is a knitted garment industry and this industry produces almost all types of knitted garments. This year this industry has decided to start a new project production leggings. As Royal knit Pvt. Ltd. is a knitted garment industry and leggings is a knitted garment, therefore, the management team of this industry has decided to start leggings production in this industry along with the other knitted garments that are being manufactured. As this is a new project for the industry, therefore proper project management plan is required in order to make the project work successful. Project management approach: The approach of the project management is one of the most important parameter that must be properly maintained in order to accomplish the entire project work effectively and efficiently (Wysocki, 2004). It helps to identify all the constraints that are related to the project. It includes all the external constraints and the internal constraints. The approach of the project management also helps to understand the changes that can take place on the way of meeting the objectives of the project and as a result of this the objectives can be met within the specified time. There are different types of approach that can be used in managing project and these project management approaches are known as traditional project management approach, critical chain approach, extreme project approach, and event chain project approach (Collins, 2011). Here, in this project i.e. in the production of leggings among these different approaches, tradition project management approach is used. The traditional p roject management approach contains several phases and these phases are known as project initiation, project planning and designing, the monitoring and controlling of the project, the execution of the project and the completion of the project. As in this project the scope and the objectives of the entire project is constant that is why here traditional project management approach is used. As the industry i.e. Royal knit Pvt. Ltd. Is a garment manufacturing company and it has a high reputation, therefore it is hoped that the project will not face any difficulties in meeting the objectives of the project. Scope of the project: After researching the market, it has been found that there is a great demand of leggings among the female consumers. Almost girls of all ages like to wear leggings. Apart from this the industry i.e. Royal knit Pvt. Ltd. is a reputed industry and all of its products are very demanding. Therefore, it can be predicted that the leggings that will be manufactured from this industry will attract a lot of consumers. It will be easy to stabilize the market. Project mild stone: Project mild stone is an important tool that is used in order to verify whether the project or each and every phase of the project is being completed in proper way and within the specified time or not (Thomsett, 2002). As a project work contains several activities, therefore, each and every activities of the project must be completed within the specified time duration so that the entire project can be completed within the specified time limit. The major tasks or activities in a project work are known as the mild stones in project work. In order to known whether these mild stones are being met properly or not, a mild stone list must be kept (Collins, 2011). A sample of the mild stone list is given below: Table 1: sample mile stone list project mile stone list project Mild stone number Mild stone mandatory or optional Start date Finish date verification Here a number is used in order to identify the tasks or activities of the project The s of the mild stone This column indicates that the mild stone is a mandatory mild stone or a optional mild stone The date or time on which the mild stone is to be started The date or time on which the mild stone to be finished The mild stone is verified or not Here the in the production of leggings, the key mild stones are fabric resourcing, pattern making, cutting, sewing and packaging. A project mild stone chart of this project ( production of leggings ) is given below: Table 2: mild stones of the project ( production of the leggings ) project mild stone list project Mild stone number Mild stone mandatory or optional Start date Finish date verification RKL - 01 start of the project mandatory RKL - 02 fabric and thread resourcing mandatory RKL - 03 inspection mandatory RKL - 04 pattern making mandatory RKL - 05 cutting mandatory RKL - 06 sewing mandatory RKL - 07 inspection mandatory RKL - 08 packaging mandatory RKL - 09 delivery mandatory RKL - 10 end of the project mandatory Cost management plan: It includes all the costs that are related to the production of the leggings. While managing the project plan cost must be managed effectively. Cost is the parameter that identifies the efficiency of the entire process (Wysocki, 2004). First of all the budget of the entire production process is to be identified. Then the planning must be done in such a way that the entire process can be controlled and it can be completed within the specified budget. While estimating the costs, all the expenses ( variable as well as fixed ) are to be considered. In case of the production of leggings, the fixed cost includes the cost of the pattern making and designing machine, cutting machine, sewing machines, iron and iron tables, device for labelling ( barcode adding ), and other associated cost. On the other hand the variable costs include the cost of the fabrics, threads, utilities, wages and salary. It also includes the maintenance cost of the machines, and other associated cost to any production procedure (Heerkens, 2002). The costs of the entire process must be managed in such a way so that it can be reduced to the minimal level and the best production can be obtained. With the help of the following table, the estimated costs ( fixed cost and variable cost ) of the production of leggings are given below: Table 3: Table of fixed costs Fixed costs particulars Quantity Price Total sewing machines over lock sewing machines 2 $1,000 2 x $ 1000 = $ 2000 overlapping sewing machines 2 $1,200 2 x $ 1200 = $ 2400 elastic attaching machine 1 $1,600 1 x $ 1600 = $ 1600 iron and iron tables 4 $300 4 x $ 300 = $ 1200 labelling machine 2 $250 2 x $ 250 = $ 500 Total $ 7700 Table 4: Table of variable costs variable cost Particulars Total utilities $ 3,000 $ 3,000 wages 20 x $ 700 $ 14,000 raw materials $ 50,000 $ 50,000 salary $ 80,000 $ 80,000 transport $ 10,000 $ 10,000 total $ 157,000 Total annual variable cost 12 x $ 157,000 = $ 1884000 Total annual cost = Fixed cost + variable cost = $ 7700 + $ 1884000 = $ 1891700 Schedule Baseline and Work Breakdown Structure: Work breakdown structure ( WBS ) is an important tool and with the help of this tool all the activities or tasks along with the deliverable that are included in a project work can be identified (Collins, 2011). With the help of this method, the costs associated with each and every activity can be estimated and even the duration of each and every activity of the project can also be determined. After breaking the project into small works a proper schedule can be made in order to complete the entire project within the specified time limit (Heerkens, 2002). Here the production of leggings also contains several activities or tasks. First of the fabric and the threads are to be resourced, then they are to be inspected properly, of the fabrics are suitable with the requirement then they are to be sent to the cutting department and if the fabrics are found not suitable with the requirement of project then they are to be returned as soon as possible. After sending the fabrics to the cutting d epartment, then a pattern is to be designed so that the fabrics can be cut according to that pattern. After the cutting has been done, the cut pieces are to be sent to the sewing section for sewing. After sewing the products i.e. the leggings are to be inspected. After inspection they are to be packed and ready for delivery. Hence the work break down structure ( WBS ) of the entire production of leggings is given below: Fabric and thread sourcing Inspection Pattern making Cutting Sewing Inspection Labelling Packaging Inspection Delivery Along with the work break structure ( WBS ), proper scheduling is also required in order to minimize the duration of the entire project to the minimal level. There are different tools that can be used in order to identify the proper scheduling method. The most common tools that are used in order to identify the shortest path are known s CPM and PERT (Thomsett, 2002). CPM stands for Critical path Method and PERT stands for program Evaluation and review technique. With the help of these tools all the paths by which the project can be completed can be identified. Apart from the found paths, the most suitable path or the shortest path can also be determined so that the time of the project along with the cost of this project can be reduced to the minimal level. With the help of schedule baseline and work breakdown structure, the resources that are required for each and every activity in the project can also be identified. The schedule baseline and work breakdown structure ( WBS ) of the p roduction of leggings are given below: Table 5: Name of the activities along with start date, finish date and duration name of the task start date finish date duration fabric resourcing 25 / 10 / 2016 27 / 10 / 2016 3 thread resourcing 26 / 10 / 2016 28 / 10 / 2016 3 Inspection 29 / 10 / 2016 30 / 10 / 2016 2 pattern making 31 / 10 / 2016 31 / 10 / 2016 1 Cutting 1 / 11 / 2016 1 / 11 / 2016 1 sewing 2 / 11 / 2016 8 / 11 / 2016 7 packing 2 / 11 / 2016 9 / 11/ 2016 8 delivery 9 / 11 / 2016 9 / 11 / 2016 1 From the schedules that are given in the above table, a Gantt chart is formed so that the duration of each and every activity in the project can be easily identified. Table 6: Gantt chart name of the task 25 / 10 / 2016 - 27 / 10 / 2016 26 / 10 / 2016 - 28 / 10 / 2016 29 / 10 / 2016 - 30 / 10 / 2016 31 / 10 / 2016 - 31 / 10 / 2016 1 / 11 / 2016 - 1 / 11 / 2016 2 / 11 / 2016 - 8 / 11 / 2016 2 / 11 / 2016 - 9 / 11/ 2016 9 / 11 / 2016 - 9 / 11 / 2016 fabric resourcing thread resourcing Inspection pattern making Cutting sewing packing delivery Change management plan: Generally a management plan is set for a particular project. Now if any change takes place in any part of the project then the plan may have to be changed in order to control and manage the changes so that the objectives of the project work can be met properly. Generally the change is measured depending on the baseline of the schedules of the project (Lewis, 2007). The change can take place in portion of the project such as the scope of the project, the budget that is considered for the project, the schedules of each and every activity, the planning method, the quality, risks and in other parts also. The change in the management plan must be taken properly and only if it is required. First of all, the reasons or the problems have to be identified for which the changes are to be made. It provides flexibility to the project work according to its requirement (Thomsett, 2002). The change management method includes three different stages and these three stages are given with the help of t he following figure: There are different types of changes that can be made in a project management in order to control and manage the activities and these include the change in the policy, the change in the process, the change of the system, change in the job roles, change in the scale of the project and it also includes the change of the rate of the productivity. Before changing the management plan, has to be identified whether the organisation and the people working in the project are ready to accept the changes or not. Here as the industry is a knitted garment manufacturing it is expected that the workplace is capable of accepting any changes. It is because as this industry has been manufacturing several types of knotted garments fro many years, it is expected that it has faced almost all types of changes that can be faced while manufacturing knitted garment. Therefore, it is also expected if the production of leggings require any changes to be made, that will also be in the list of the changes that t his industry has faced for these years. The problems may take place with the people. As each and every knitted garment contains several activities and after implementing these activities the garment can be formed. The main problem can take place in sewing department as different stitches are performed in different types of sewing machines and the operating methods of these different methods are different. It is not possible for each and every worker to learn to operate all the machines comfortably. Therefore, if any changes take place there may be a problem with the workers. In order to avoid such problems, the workers must be given proper training so that they can learn to operate at least three to four different types of sewing machines. In case of an emergency if any change needs to be performed, it will be very useful. Risk management plan The risk management plan is one of the most important parts of any project work. The risk management plan includes several tasks that are associated with managing the risks (Crouhy, et al., 2000). In this plan, first of all, the risks are identified. The project management plan must contain the risk management plans properly in order to meet the objectives of the project properly. First of all, all the possible risks that can take place while implementing each and every task or activity that are associated with this project are to be identified. After identifying the risks the degree of possibility of those risks along with the degree of possibility of the impacts of those risks on the project is also to be determined (Heerkens, 2002). The risks are to be analysed properly. A risk mitigation plan is also to be made. The risk mitigation includes several tasks like the risk avoidance, risk sharing, reduction of the risk, and risk transfer. Along with this a risk contingency planning is also to be made. All the risks and the corrective measures must be properly tracked and monitored. The risks can be analysed with the help of a risk matrix. A sample risk matrix is given below: Table 7: risk matrix ( sample ) Probability Severity Low Medium High High potential impact to product quality. Medium potential impact to product quality Low potential impact to product quality. There are several risks that can take place while producing leggings. First of all the fabrics must be properly inspected. There are several inspection systems and the two most important systems by which inspection of the fabrics are done are known as 4 point system and 10 point system. Here in Royal knit Pvt. Ltd. 4 point inspection system is used. The fabrics are tested in laboratory. There different parameters are tested. The most important parameter is the GSM. The GSM must be between 100 and 150. Only then the fabric can be taken for the manufacturing of the leggings. The testing of the fabric must be properly done in order to avoid any risks that are associated with the fabric. Then the pattern of design must be made. Here also proper care must be maintained. The pattern must be made in such a way that the minimum amount of fabric gets wasted and within a particular area maximum number of cut pieces can be made. The cutting must be done according to the design of the pattern. T he capacity of the cutting machine must be suitable with the thickness of the fabric ( fabric roll ). The most number of risks can take place in the sewing department. There are different types of tasks that are performed in the sewing department. Different types of sewing such as over lock stitching, lock stitching, over lapping stitch and other different types of stitches are performed in the manufacturing of leggings. it must be taken care that all the sewing machines work properly. The operators must be trained properly so that they feel comfortable in working with the machines. Apart from this the workers or the operators must provide the knowledge of the basic working principles of the sewing machines ( at which they work ) in order to ensure that if any time any problem occurs with the machine, they can check it and try to solve the problems. Though a professional team for doing such things will be available all the time, but in order to reduce the consumption of time the ope rators must be trained properly. Apart from this the operators should know the method of handling the machines; it will help them to protect themselves from any type accidents. Another risk is that the stitching can be improper if proper training is not given to them. The stitching department of leggings contains several tasks like side seam stitching, bottom stitching, hem stitching, elastic joining and attaching. The bottom seam is the first task and the side seam is the second task of this project. From the given risk matrix it can be seen that the probability of the bottom seam stitching is very low, but the potential impact of it on the quality of the product is very high. As it is the first step of stitching and it is followed several tasks, if this task is not performed properly then all the other tasks that follow this task will all go in vain. Therefore, while stitching the bottom seams proper care must be maintained and it must be done by the operators who are expert in do ing such stitches. On the other hand, the side seam joining is another task that can create several problems. From the below given risk matrix it can be seen that the probability and the severity of this task both are high. This task can create a lot of problems if proper care is not taken while executing this task. As the inspection is done after the completion of all the stitching works, therefore error cannot be detected immediately after the completion of the task known as the side seam stitching. It will result into the rework of all the other tasks also. As a result of this a lot of time will be consumed. It will decrease the overall efficiency and productivity of the entire production. Table 8: Risk matrix of the project ( production of leggings ) Probability Severity Low Medium High High potential impact to product quality. Bottom seam stitching, waist line stitching, improper cut samples Side seam joining, machine malfunctioning Medium potential impact to product quality Unskilled employee and carelessness Low potential impact to product quality. Hem line stitching Elastic attach Risk register Risk register is known as one of the most important component of the entire risk management plan (Holmes, 2002). A sample risk register is given below: Table 9: sample risk register Date Reference Number Key Element Risk group identification number Risk existing controls consequences Likelihood agreed priority Inherent rating Summary of the action responsibility Resource calendar A project management plan must contain a resource calendar (Lester and Lester, 2007). A resource calendar is known as a calendar that explains the duration of the working hours, vacations and absence. Here, in this project i.e. in the production leggings, similar resources calendar is used. From the resource calendar used in this project it can be found that the production is done all the time. There are three shifts and each of the shifts is of 8 hours. There is no fixed holiday in this project. Each and every worker working in this project will have a day off per week. Apart from this, they can take one day as leave in a month. In order to take the leave they must inform the supervisor at least 3 days before the day on which they want to take the leave. In the resource calendar all the non working days of the project are also included. Schedule management plan A schedule management plan is the management plan that helps to management all the schedules of the project (Jorda?o and Sousa, 2010). In this plan all the activities that are to be performed in the project must be scheduled in such a manner that they remain in proper sequence. As a result of this the duration of the each and every activity along with the duration of the entire project can be reduced to the minimal level (Leach, 2005). Here in this project all the activities in the production management are to be scheduled properly. The project schedule management plan can be displayed in a chart and it contains the scope of completion of the project, the baseline schedule, the final budget that is approved. Quality management plan: The quality must be maintained throughout the entire production work (Collins, 2011). The quality assurance and the quality control are the two most important factors of any project management plan. The quality of the product and the raw materials along with the methods that are being performed must be maintained properly. The produced leggings must meet the required quality and in order to do so the plan of the entire project management must be done in such a way that this objective can be made. The quality of the fabrics are checked with the help of two different types of inspection methods and these two types of inspection methods are known as 4 point system inspection method and 10 point system inspection method. Here in this industry both point systems are used, though in this particular project only 4 point inspection system is used for quality checking. Communication management plan: Proper communication must be made among the stake holders of the industry, the clients and the management team of the project. Communication management plan must be done in such a way that each and all the major information can be properly given to the clients and the stake holders of the company in order to ensure that the project is being done in proper way or not. Here in this project no client is available, as the industry does not take orders from any third party. Therefore here in this project the communication must be done between the stake holders and the management team of the project. Here the communication plan is made in such a way that achieving each of the mild stones will be given to the stake holders in order to ensure that the work is in progress positively. Apart from this, by knowing the current status of the project the stake holders can inform the management team whether any changes are required or not. Dispute or Conflict: Conflict in the workplace is a common problem and this problem can be removed or at least reduced to the minimum level if proper corrective actions are taken. There are different reasons that can result into conflicts in the workplace (Barrett and Davidson, 2006). First of all, different types of interests of the stake holders are one of the primary causes of any type of conflict in the workplace or in the industry. Another reason behind conflict in the industry is the management style of the project manager. If the management style of the project manager is not correct then several types of conflicts can take place in the industry. Therefore the project manager must manage the works in proper way so that none of the employees, operators or the workers get disturbed with the method of managing works. The change of the scopes of the project can also create a lot of conflicts in the industry. On the other hand, another reason behind the conflicts in the industry is the change in the sc hedules. It can be seen in almost any industry. This garment industry is also a part of this. It can be found when the working schedules are changed; several disputes or conflicts can be seen in the production floor (Ishikawa and Tsujimoto, 2009). For an example, if the time of delivery of the project is knocking at the door and the project is behind the schedule, then the management team tries to manage the situation by ordering the operators to work addition hours. Though the operators are paid for the additional hours, it has been found that different conflicts are created in the industry. On the other hand, if any part of the work is not done properly and the work has to be completed as soon as possible, in that case the operators have to work additional hours and in this case, they are not even paid. Thus, conflicts rise in the industry. Project cancellation or failure is another reason behind conflicts in the industry (Collins, 2011). If the methodology of the project manageme nt contains any dispute, it will definitely cause several disputes or conflicts throughout the entire project work. Staffing management plan: It is another important parameter of the project management plan. The staffing management must be properly done. Each and every person must be given suitable jobs. The operators must also be given the tasks in which they are comfortable with (Barrett and Davidson, 2006). For an example the operator who is comfortable in working with over lock stitch, that operator must be given that task or similar type of task ( if that task cannot be given ). Now if that person is given task that is completely different from that task then that operator will definitely face difficulty in the operating that machine and as a result of this the rate of the production will reduce and the overall efficiency will also decrease. The management team is responsible for distributing the works to the suitable people. Not only the operators, but all the works that are to be done in order to accomplish the project must be given to the suitable persons only. Hence, it can be said that in order to improve or main tain the productivity of the industry or the efficiency of the project, proper staffing management plan is required. Procurement management plan: With the help of the procurement management plan, the procurement requirement of any project can be defined and the method of managing them can also be understood. This plan must contain al the required steps in the project. In this case, all the activities of the production of leggings are included in this plan, from the start of the plan to the end of the project; each and every steps are included in this plan. All the documents of the tasks are also kept within this management plan. It also includes the estimation costs and even the risk management. Apart from all these a procurement chart must contain the scope of the project, the costs of the entire project, the resources that are used in this project and also the technology use in the project. The performance metrics are also included in this planning method. Conclusion: Hence from the above discussion it can be concluded that a project management plan is very important in order to meet the objectives of a project. It can be found that a project management plan contains several management plans such as cost management plan, schedule management plan, communication management plan, procurement management plan, risk management plan and several other different types of plans. Each and every plan of the project management plan must be performed effectively and efficiently in order to make the entire project work successful and fruitful. References Barrett, M. and Davidson, M. (2006).Gender and communication at work. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate Pub. Collins, R. (2011).Project management. New York: Nova Science Publishers. Crouhy, M., Galai, D. and Mark, R. (2000).Risk management. New York: McGraw Hill. Heerkens, G. (2002).Project management. New York: McGraw-Hill. Holmes, A. (2002).Risk management. Oxford, U.K.: Capstone Pub. Ishikawa, A. and Tsujimoto, A. (2009).Risk and crisis management. Singapore: World Scientific. Jorda?o, B. and Sousa, E. (2010).Risk management. New York: Nova Science Publishers. Leach, L. (2005).Critical chain project management. Boston: Artech House. Lester, A. and Lester, A. (2007).Project management, planning and control. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann. Lewis, J. (2007).Fundamentals of project management. New York: American Management Association. Thomsett, M. (2002).The little black book of project management. New York: AMACOM. Wysocki, R. (2004).Project management process improvement. Boston: Artech House.

Goal of Human Genome Project Essay Example

Goal of Human Genome Project Essay MOLECULAR BIOLOGY BBT 3206 HUMAN GENOME PROJECT NAME:PRABAKARAN SIVANANTHAN NRIC:881009-07-5703 880831-08-7097 What is a genome? A genome is an organism’s complete set of DNA, including all of its genes. Each Genome contains all of the information needed to build and maintain that organism. In humans, a copy of the entire genome more than 3 billion DNA base pairs is contained in all cells that have a nucleus. What was the Human Genome Project and why has it been important? The Human Genome Project was an international research effort to determine the sequence of the human genome and identify the genes that it contains. The Project was coordinated by the National Institutes of Health and the U. S. Department of Energy. Additional contributors included universities across the United States and international partners in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, and China. The Human Genome Project formally began in 1990 and was completed in 2003, 2 years ahead of its original schedule. The work of the Human Genome Project has allowed researchers to begin to understand the blueprint for building a person. We will write a custom essay sample on Goal of Human Genome Project specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Goal of Human Genome Project specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Goal of Human Genome Project specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer As researchers learn more about the functions of genes and proteins, this knowledge will have a major impact in the fields of medicine, biotechnology, and the life sciences. What were the goals of the Human Genome Project? The main goals of the Human Genome Project were to provide a complete and accurate sequence of the 3 billion DNA base pairs that make up the human genome and to find all of the estimated 20,000 to 25,000 human genes. The Project also aimed to sequence the genomes of several other organisms that are important to medical research, such as the mouse and the fruit fly. In addition to sequencing DNA, the Human Genome Project sought to develop new tools to obtain and analyze the data and to make this information widely available. Also, because advances in genetics have consequences for individuals and society, the Human Genome Project committed to exploring the consequences of genomic research through its Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program. What did the Human Genome Project accomplish? In April 2003, researchers announced that the Human Genome Project had completed a high-quality sequence of essentially the entire human genome. This sequence closed the gaps from a working draft of the genome, which was published in 2001. It also identified the locations of many human genes and provided information about their structure and organization. The Project made the sequence of the human genome and tools to analyze the data freely available via the Internet. In addition to the human genome, the Human Genome Project sequenced the genomes of several other organisms, including brewers’ yeast, the roundworm, and the fruit fly. In 2002, researchers announced that they had also completed a working draft of the mouse genome. By studying the similarities and differences between human genes and those of other organisms, researchers can discover the functions of particular genes and identify which genes are critical for life. The Project’s Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program became the world’s largest bioethics program and a model for other ELSI programs worldwide. For additional information about ELSI and the program’s accomplishments, please refer to what were some of the ethical, legal, and social implications addressed by the Human Genome Project? What were some of the ethical, legal, and social implications addressed by the Human Genome Project? The Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program was founded in 1990 as an integral part of the Human Genome Project. The mission of the ELSI program was to identify and address issues raised by genomic research that would affect individuals, families, and society. A percentage of the Human Genome Project budget at the National Institutes of Health and the U. S. Department of Energy was devoted to ELSI research. The ELSI program focused on the possible consequences of genomic research in four main areas: Privacy and fairness in the use of genetic information, including the potential for genetic discrimination in employment and insurance. The integration of new genetic technologies, such as genetic testing, into the practice of clinical medicine. Ethical issues surrounding the design and conduct of genetic research with people, including the process of informed consent. The education of healthcare professionals, policy makers, students, and the public about genetics and the complex issues that result from genomic research.

Synthesis on Race and Ethnicity essays

Synthesis on Race and Ethnicity essays With the commencement of the millennium one might think that what is known as the melting pot of the world would interact more smoothly than what is portrayed in the media. We have long lived in a society that is segregated, not because it has gone unopposed, but because no one wants to take on the responsibility of breaking the "Berlin Wall" of segregation. We have, however, come a long way from the kind of segregation that was imparted in our country's fledgling stages, slavery being the number one offense of segregation. A quarter-century ago, race was part of everyday public discourse; today it haunts us quietly, though on occasion - the Rodney King beating or the Simpson trial or Eric McGinnis's death - it erupts with jarring urgency. At these moments of crisis, during these squalls, we flail about, trying to find moral ballast. By then it is usually too late. The lines are drawn. Accusations are hurled across the river like cannon fire. And the cease-fires, when they occur, are just that, cease-fires, temporary and fragile. Even the best of people have already chosen sides (Kotlowitz, 414) To have any race or sect serve another because they believe they are higher and mightier than the other is preposterous. By our own nature we, as a society, strive to dominate others and become the "King of the Hill". This is our major downfall, by doing this we injure our society and the bond that holds this country together. Why does this occur you might ask? That is a question to be answered only by anthropologists and sociologists; for students do not have the time or inclination to sort through behaviorisms and psychological mumbo jumbo. Many of our youth were taught to stay within their own ethnic groups. This mentality is what gave rise to the Klu Klux Klan, the Chinese prisoner camps of World War II, and the ethnically segregated neighborhoods of today. Some are taught to hate other ethnic groups, some have ...

Philanthropic activity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Philanthropic activity - Essay Example The event falls on the National Child Abuse Awareness month, and its venue is Patsy’s House, a Children’s Advocacy Center. My participation in the event was on 2015, March 28, at around 12:25 noon-2:00pm. My participation location was at Patterson Honda, Old Jacksboro Highway. I helped raise funds for the African Student Organization, by donating to the pinwheel program. I made a $20 donation to the organization, helping raise funds for the event. I also took my beloved dog with me, which I let the kids play with as they enjoyed themselves. I indulged in philanthropy to help raise funds for the organization, playing my societal role in bettering the lives of other individuals. I hope to participate in other charitable activities, as my previous attendance made me feel better about myself. I felt appreciated by seeing the joy and happiness depicted in those kids, developing and unquenchable urge to participate even further. Verification of my service can be provided by Onyinye, who was a fellow participant. Her contact information is as presented

Registered Nurse, Psychiatric Specialty Research Paper

Registered Nurse, Psychiatric Specialty - Research Paper Example These functions include: assistance during surgeries, administration of medications, monitoring vital signs, monitoring for side-effects of surgeries and/or medications, and also monitoring for complications. Aside from these assistive functions however, these nurses also carry out independent nursing functions, functions which do not need to be ordered by doctors or other health professionals (Temple, 2012). For psychiatric nursing, nursing care involves the administration of psychiatric drugs, observing patient symptoms, including extra-pyramidal symptoms, providing therapeutic care, carrying out suicide watch, and preventing self-harm (Temple, 2012). In order to be RNs, a state licensure exam is often needed. Each state has its own licensure examination and has its own requisite for practice. II. Education and Certification The basic requirement for a career as a registered nurse is to pass the licensure examination in the state where one desires to practice (Nazarko, 2004). Befor e the licensure examination is taken however, the applicant needs to finish first a Bachelor’s Degree in Nursing. ... The National Council Licensure Examination (NCLEX) is also a requirement for entry into the registered nursing career. As was mentioned above, the examinations vary with each state, and depending on the entry requirements for each state, practice can include other licensed nurses from other states (Rosdahl and Kowalski, 2007). The cost of education for a career in registered nursing varies with each state and for each country. In the US however, Lee (2012) discusses that the average cost for 4 years tuition for a Bachelor’s degree in nursing is $26,340 in a public university, and for a private university, about $100,572 (Lee, 2012). This is the comparable tuition rate for nursing. The University of Washington for example, estimates $28,000 for state residents and $93,000 for non-state residents for their BS Nursing degrees. An ivy-league school like the University of Pennsylvania averages about $150,000 for its nursing program (Lee, 2012). Aside from the tuition, other academi c requirements like books, laboratory and administrative fees are also essential. Other costs also accrue in terms of living arrangements, including housing, parking, and other living expenses which would vary depending on the student’s circumstances and the country or state where the student is studying (Lee, 2012). Registered psychiatric nurses have to go additional training and certifications in psychiatric nursing (APNA, 2012). These nurses need a Master’s Degree in psychiatric mental health nursing. Doctorate degrees in psychiatric nursing are also options for interested RNs. Such degrees would allow them to participate in teaching, research, and in administration (APNA, 2012).

ECONOMICS FOR BUSINESS Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

ECONOMICS FOR BUSINESS - Coursework Example While these were being implemented, their application had to be prioritised so that the government would offer what was socially and economically healthy to the citizens. These policies were to be implemented to improve the supply side structure of the economy and, therefore, touched on the firms, markets and industries. In this, the government aimed at improving the efficiency of firms, its productivity efficiency and effectiveness as it argued that much of the things that made the country to lag behind were caused by micro economic factors and not majorly from the external environment. The government minimised the distortions that apply in the market so that it remains competitive and productive and have a more efficient allocation of resources. This locative efficiency has allowed the resources to flow to areas where they are used more efficiently. The tariff protections have been removed from the industries which are inefficient. This has allowed the diversion of resources to areas which are more productive and, therefore, increasing the output. The government has subsidised the costs of importation of the new technology in a bid to increase the efficiency in production with minimum costs. This has been the case as the technically efficient industries have had reduced use of resources of which has helped to shift them to other areas of the economy. The reduction of government regulations helped the producers to venture into new markets and to respond quickly to the changing patterns in the economy and demands that come with it. This has set up the pace for the introduction of new technologies and inventions as well as bringing about competition that is fit for the structural changes. The government adopted the trade practices act that is meant to reduce competition through the collusive prices. This has also enabled new firms to enter the market and compete with the already existing firms. The government has removed the rigid regulations which used to control the market movements and has left the flow of the market been regulated by the demand and supply forces. The deregulations included the floatation of the dollar plus the removal of the control of RBA on the banks. These deregulations extended to the transport and telecommunication industries. This led to greater efficiency and productivity in these sectors, which was reflected in the whole economy. These were highlighted in the national economic reform policy which dated back to 1995. The government set up policies to ensure corporatisation and privatisation. This has brought about structural changes in the government business enterprises and has, therefore, ended up working independently from the governmen t eradicating political interference in their working. Industries like Qantas and Telstra have been privatised to be more competitive. The government carried out reforms in the labour market, where there arose a

Fair Representation of Financial Statements

Fair Representation of Financial Statements 1. INTRODUCTION The Financial Reporting Standards Board was formed to resolve the problems faced by the international financial reporting regiment. In particular, it hopes to promote the standardization of international accounting standards through its International Accounting Standards (IASs) to facilitate transactions and improve financial markets. Underscoring the FRSBs philosophy is to enable the fair presentation of financial statements. This report discusses this concept and evaluates whether the application of a standardized accounting reporting regiment would achieve its objectives with a critical examination of some accounting standards. 2. FAIR PRESENTATION DEFINED Whenever we mention the fair presentation of financial statements, we are referring to the accounting concept of true and fair view. The phrase true and fair in an accounting context does not have the same meaning as true and fair in a general context. Thus, true in an accounting context does not mean in accordance with the facts or not false and fair in an accounting context does not mean just or unbiased. The most generally accepted interpretation of true and fair in an accounting context is that accounts are true and fair if they are prepared and presented in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. Thus courts have held that accounts based on historical cost present a true and fair view. Riley has pointed out that the various Companies Acts require the presentation of a true and fair view and not the true and fair view. The implication is that in a particular circumstance no single view is true and fair but that there are several views each of which is true and fair. Presumably, any generally accepted accounting method provides a true and fair view. There are some who argue that different accounting standards does not inhibit the adoption of fair presentation while others believe that a uniform international standard like IAS is the best means of achieving fair presentation of financial statements. 3. THE CASE FOR DIFFERENT ACCOUNTING STANDARDS 3.1 Diversity is Desirable It has been argued by some that a range of accounting methods is desirable because of the diverse circumstances of different businesses. In some circumstances one method would be desirable and in other circumstances some other method would be most appropriate. Diverse accounting methods are necessary because of diverse circumstances. For example, it could be argued that when a non-controlling interest in another company is acquired and where there is a substantial influence over its policies, the equity method would reflect the circumstances more accurately than simply showing the investment at cost. Given a variety of accounting methods, it is argued that management should choose the one which best reflects the unique circumstances of the situation. The ability to choose the most appropriate method should lead to comparability of accounting reports. More meaningful comparisons would be possible because accounting reports reflect the circumstances in each case. The independent auditor should ensure that management selects the most appropriate method for the presentation of a true and fair view. If management does not choose the best method, the auditor will not confirm the presentation of a true and fair view and a qualified audit report should result. 3.2 Arguments Against International Financial Reporting Standards Just as there are many compelling arguments in favour of IAS, there are also equally compelling arguments against it. One of the major criticisms against IFRS is that poorly developed and developing countries view it as a form of imposition of rules or neo-colonization by economically superior countries (Mednick, 1991). Secondly, standardization goes against the inherently flexible nature of accounting. One of the key principles of accounting is substance over form, so providing international standards would be contrary to this. When accounting rules are standardized or harmonized, they cannot possibly be flexible enough to fit into the enormous scope of different national situations, legal systems, stages of economic growth and cultural differences. Instead of aiding progress, such rigid and inflexible standards may actually hinder it. Next, some experts argue that it will be very difficult for international accounting standards bodies like the IASB to reach a universal consensus on some issues. As a result, concessions and compromises will have to be made so that it becomes acceptable to the international community (Berton, 2000). When this happens, the standards become inadequate and permissive. Another argument against international accounting standards is that it could be dangerous as the standards may erode profits and cause volatility in the balance sheets of the companies (Parker, 2002). As a result, companies need to educate their investors about the effects of international accounting standards on the reported profits and liabilities. Finally, some have expressed concern that international standardization or harmonization may cause standard overload. Companies that have to deal with social, political, national and economic pressure will be overextended to comply with the more complex and expensive international requirements. This may add to operating costs. 4. THE CASE FOR INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS 4.1 Problems with Diversity There is the availability of a wide choice of accounting methods. For many transactions, accountants are able to choose from a selection of accounting methods each of which is equally acceptable and which often give widely different results. However, there are two main types of criticism leveled against this kind of diversity. One, it is suggested that the availability of several acceptable alternative accounting methods for a single transaction could make the accounting reports of different companies non-comparable. Differences in reported results could reflect different accounting procedures rather than different performances. For example, suppose that Company A expensed all research and development expenditure, used FIFO for inventory and depreciated its assets on a straight-line basis. Any differences in the reported profits and balance sheets of the two companies would be due, at least in part, to differences in accounting procedures and any assessment of relative performance and financial position would be difficult to make. The critics argue that diversity in accounting methods reduce the utility of accounting reports by measuring corporate performance in different ways. Two, it is also suggested that the availability of different accounting methods allows management to choose those methods which give the desired result. In other words, profits could be manipulated by the choice of accounting method. If management wants lower profits, conservative accounting procedures could be used. Choosing accounting procedures to satisfy management objectives is sometimes described as creative accounting. In America, researchers have found substantial evidence of creative accounting. The critics regard creative accounting as particularly bad and conclude that financial statements cannot be used with any confidence to measure or compare managerial performance. The common element of these two criticisms is that the availability of a choice of accounting methods leads to a lack of comparability in accounting reports. 4.2 Increased Disclosure The second argument for IAS is to seek increased disclosure. Two types of increased disclosure are suggested. One, it is argued that the problems of diversity could be at least partially overcome by detailed disclosure of accounting method. Under this proposal, accounting reports would include a statement of the methods used to compute depreciation, unearned income, inventory and so on. It is suggested that this additional data would enable statement users to recast the accounting reports into a form suitable for comparison with the reports of other years or other companies. Two, it is suggested that where an accounting method is different from that used in the previous report, the fact of the change of method and the effect of the change on reported profits or balance sheet items should both be disclosed. With this additional information statement users would be able to restate the accounting reports of a company to make them comparable on an interpreted basis. The effect of creative accounting would be disclosed. It should be noted that the increased disclosure response leaves companies and their auditors with a choice from a range of accounting methods. Diversity in accounting method is not reduced. The increased disclosure allows statement users to make accounting reports comparable by recasting them in the form they need. Increased disclosure is a solution to the problem of diversity can be criticized on the grounds that the benefits may not be shared equally by all statement users. It requires a statement user with accounting skills to recast financial reports on a comparable basis. Statement users without access to these skills would receive no benefits from these additional disclosures. Indeed, they may be worse off as sophisticated statement users recast the financial reports and to make better decisions. Any solution to the diversity problem which places the one on statement users and which could therefore discriminates against a group of users is clearly unsatisfactory. 4.3 Increased Uniformity It is also widely believed that a universal adoption of IAS would contribute to uniformity of financial statements internationally. When different standards are used, it is sometimes difficult to compare the financial performance of two companies. Comparability would eliminate misunderstandings about the reliability of foreign financial statements and would remove one of the most important impediments to the flow of international investment. Narrowing the range of choice of accounting methods is usually described as increasing uniformity. In most cases, increased uniformity is achieved by issuing statements of accounting principles or standards which specify the accounting method for a particular transaction or event. Increased uniformity means that the same accounting methods are likely to be used in the same circumstances by different companies and at different times. The onus is on management and accountants rather than statement users. There are several arguments used to support the case for greater uniformity of accounting method. Firstly, the most important argument is that uniformity of accounting procedures will allow comparisons of accounting reports. Similar situations will be reported in a similar way and results will be directly comparable. Any difference in reported results will be due to differences in the circumstances and not in the accounting method. Secondly, many accountants believe that increased uniformity would make their jobs much easier. Choosing an accounting procedure is for many accountants time consuming and difficult. It may lead to conflict between management which wants creative accounting and accountants who believe that another method is more appropriate. With uniformity, the chance of conflict over accounting method would be reduced. Thirdly, with uniformity, accountants would be better able to defend their procedures in court. Because their choices would be limited, they could not be accused or choosing an accounting method to meet the needs of any particular group. This in an important consideration for accountants. 4.4 Cost Benefits There are numerous financial benefits of having IAS. The first is that it decreases the cost of data collection (Choi et al, 1999). Time and money will be saved on consolidating divergent financial information when more than one set of reports is required to comply with the different national laws or practice. Secondly, it is believed that the ease of comparison of information and the reduced cost of collecting data will help spur the development of capital markets through the inflow of foreign capital (Don and Thomas, 1995). Investors, financial analysts and foreign leaders will be able to understand the financial statements of foreign companies and they would be able to compare the investment opportunities that will assist them to make the correct investment decision. This in turn will also facilitate the movement of funds. As taxes are levied on the total income of a business, it would be of great help to national tax authorities around the world if net income was calculated on si milar accounting principles and practices. In addition, this will provide firms with a competitive advantage. International accounting and disclosure standards would make it easier to conduct the competitive and operational analyses needed to run a business. It will also become easier for top management to manage important relationship with stakeholders such as customers and suppliers. Multinational corporations will benefit the most and it will also become easier for them to fulfil the disclosure requirements for international stock exchanges. Finally, harmonization of accounting standards will decrease audit costs and increase the efficiency of the audit (Choi et al, 1999). 5. DIFFERENCES IN ACCOUNTING TREATMENT To better understand how universal adoption of IAS would eliminate differences in accounting treatment, let us consider some examples of divergent accounting treatment. For this purpose, a comparison is made between IASs and the United States Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (US-GAAP). 5.1 Changes in Depreciation or Amortization Method According to IAS 16 and IAS 38, there is an explicit stipulation that changes in depreciation or amortization method must be accounted for as a change in estimate. However, US-GAAP treats these changes as changes in policy by demonstrating the cumulative effect of the change in the income statement. These require retrospective changes, which are not required by IAS. 5.2 Impairment of Assets IAS 36 uses a discounted impairment trigger, because the value in use is by definition a discounted value. Reversal of impairment losses recognized in prior years is allowed. On the other hand, in the US-GAAP, if the sum of the expected cash flows is less than the carrying amount of the asset, the entity shall recognize an impairment loss. This means that the impairment trigger is an undiscounted amount. Reversal of previously recognized impairment losses is prohibited for assets to be held and used. 5.3 Impairment of Goodwill According to IAS, the recoverable amount of a cash generating unit should be compared with the carrying value of its net assets. Resulting impairment losses should first be deducted from goodwill and then from other assets on a pro-rata basis. However, US-GAAP requires determination of the implied fair value of the goodwill. If the implied fair value is less than its carrying value, this carrying amount should be reduced. Such a goodwill impairment test cannot affect the carrying values of other assets. 5.4 Business Combinations in-process Research and Development For IAS, purchased in-process research and development that meets the recognition criteria for an intangible asset should be valued at fair value. Even if it is not a separate identifiable intangible asset, the IAS method results in capitalization of those costs as part of goodwill. Under US-GAAP, purchased in-process research and development assets both tangible and intangible should be charged to expense at acquisition date if no alternative future use for the assets can be determined. 6. INCONSISTENCIES IN IAS Although IASs are deemed to improve fair reporting, there are occasional inconsistencies that often hamper their effectiveness. Indeed, the IASB has tried to correct some of these inconsistencies, but there are still flaws in the overall framework. The following are some of the inconsistencies that have been corrected in recent years. 6.1 Classification of Tonnage Taxes in IAS 112 In some countries, shipping companies are allowed to choose to be taxed on the basis of tonnage transported, tonnage capacity or a notional profit instead of the standard corporate income tax regulations. In the past, tonnage capacity was regarded as a basis for taxable income. This is based on a flawed assumption. Income taxes are calculated on taxable profit which implies net, rather than gross amount. Taxes either on tonnage transported or tonnage capacity are based on gross instead of net amount. Therefore, such taxes would not be considered income taxes and would not be presented as part of tax expenses in the statement of comprehensive income. 6.2 Accounting for Sales Cost in IAS 38 Some problems arise among real estate developers. IAS 2 does not permit selling costs to be capitalized as inventory if the real estate units are considered to be inventory. However, other standards conclude that some direct and incremental costs recoverable as a result of securing a specifically identifiable contract with a customer may be capitalized in narrow circumstances, for example in IAS 11 (Paragraph 21) and IAS 18 (Appendix 14(b)(iii)). Hence, it is not possible to reach a conclusion on the appropriate accounting for board categories of selling and marketing costs in all circumstances. 6.3 Disclosure of Idle Assets and Construction in Progress in IAS 16 In accordance with paragraph 74(b) of IAS 16, an entity is required to disclose the amount of expenditures recognized in the carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment in the course of its construction. Paragraph 79(a) encourages an entity to disclose the amount of property, plant and equipment that is temporarily idle. Paragraph 112(c) of IAS 1 requires an entity to provide in the notes information that is not presented elsewhere in the financial statements that is relevant to their understanding. The disclosure regarding idle assets might be particularly relevant in the current economic environment. Therefore, IASB should review all disclosures encouraged with the objective of either confirming that they are required or eliminating them. 7. CONCLUSION To end, all accountants agree that the fair presentation of accounting and financial statements is important. However, what exactly constitutes fair presentation is a contentious and debatable matter. Some insist that adopting IFRS is the best way of achieving this objective while others assert that substance is more important than form and that it is perfectly acceptable to use different accounting standards so long as it shows some form of fair presentation. While I personally believe that it would be ultimately benefit the international financial community to have one standard to prevent confusion, its implementation is still some years away.