Goal of Human Genome Project Essay Example

Goal of Human Genome Project Essay MOLECULAR BIOLOGY BBT 3206 HUMAN GENOME PROJECT NAME:PRABAKARAN SIVANANTHAN NRIC:881009-07-5703 880831-08-7097 What is a genome? A genome is an organism’s complete set of DNA, including all of its genes. Each Genome contains all of the information needed to build and maintain that organism. In humans, a copy of the entire genome more than 3 billion DNA base pairs is contained in all cells that have a nucleus. What was the Human Genome Project and why has it been important? The Human Genome Project was an international research effort to determine the sequence of the human genome and identify the genes that it contains. The Project was coordinated by the National Institutes of Health and the U. S. Department of Energy. Additional contributors included universities across the United States and international partners in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, and China. The Human Genome Project formally began in 1990 and was completed in 2003, 2 years ahead of its original schedule. The work of the Human Genome Project has allowed researchers to begin to understand the blueprint for building a person. We will write a custom essay sample on Goal of Human Genome Project specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Goal of Human Genome Project specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Goal of Human Genome Project specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer As researchers learn more about the functions of genes and proteins, this knowledge will have a major impact in the fields of medicine, biotechnology, and the life sciences. What were the goals of the Human Genome Project? The main goals of the Human Genome Project were to provide a complete and accurate sequence of the 3 billion DNA base pairs that make up the human genome and to find all of the estimated 20,000 to 25,000 human genes. The Project also aimed to sequence the genomes of several other organisms that are important to medical research, such as the mouse and the fruit fly. In addition to sequencing DNA, the Human Genome Project sought to develop new tools to obtain and analyze the data and to make this information widely available. Also, because advances in genetics have consequences for individuals and society, the Human Genome Project committed to exploring the consequences of genomic research through its Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program. What did the Human Genome Project accomplish? In April 2003, researchers announced that the Human Genome Project had completed a high-quality sequence of essentially the entire human genome. This sequence closed the gaps from a working draft of the genome, which was published in 2001. It also identified the locations of many human genes and provided information about their structure and organization. The Project made the sequence of the human genome and tools to analyze the data freely available via the Internet. In addition to the human genome, the Human Genome Project sequenced the genomes of several other organisms, including brewers’ yeast, the roundworm, and the fruit fly. In 2002, researchers announced that they had also completed a working draft of the mouse genome. By studying the similarities and differences between human genes and those of other organisms, researchers can discover the functions of particular genes and identify which genes are critical for life. The Project’s Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program became the world’s largest bioethics program and a model for other ELSI programs worldwide. For additional information about ELSI and the program’s accomplishments, please refer to what were some of the ethical, legal, and social implications addressed by the Human Genome Project? What were some of the ethical, legal, and social implications addressed by the Human Genome Project? The Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program was founded in 1990 as an integral part of the Human Genome Project. The mission of the ELSI program was to identify and address issues raised by genomic research that would affect individuals, families, and society. A percentage of the Human Genome Project budget at the National Institutes of Health and the U. S. Department of Energy was devoted to ELSI research. The ELSI program focused on the possible consequences of genomic research in four main areas: Privacy and fairness in the use of genetic information, including the potential for genetic discrimination in employment and insurance. The integration of new genetic technologies, such as genetic testing, into the practice of clinical medicine. Ethical issues surrounding the design and conduct of genetic research with people, including the process of informed consent. The education of healthcare professionals, policy makers, students, and the public about genetics and the complex issues that result from genomic research.

Synthesis on Race and Ethnicity essays

Synthesis on Race and Ethnicity essays With the commencement of the millennium one might think that what is known as the melting pot of the world would interact more smoothly than what is portrayed in the media. We have long lived in a society that is segregated, not because it has gone unopposed, but because no one wants to take on the responsibility of breaking the "Berlin Wall" of segregation. We have, however, come a long way from the kind of segregation that was imparted in our country's fledgling stages, slavery being the number one offense of segregation. A quarter-century ago, race was part of everyday public discourse; today it haunts us quietly, though on occasion - the Rodney King beating or the Simpson trial or Eric McGinnis's death - it erupts with jarring urgency. At these moments of crisis, during these squalls, we flail about, trying to find moral ballast. By then it is usually too late. The lines are drawn. Accusations are hurled across the river like cannon fire. And the cease-fires, when they occur, are just that, cease-fires, temporary and fragile. Even the best of people have already chosen sides (Kotlowitz, 414) To have any race or sect serve another because they believe they are higher and mightier than the other is preposterous. By our own nature we, as a society, strive to dominate others and become the "King of the Hill". This is our major downfall, by doing this we injure our society and the bond that holds this country together. Why does this occur you might ask? That is a question to be answered only by anthropologists and sociologists; for students do not have the time or inclination to sort through behaviorisms and psychological mumbo jumbo. Many of our youth were taught to stay within their own ethnic groups. This mentality is what gave rise to the Klu Klux Klan, the Chinese prisoner camps of World War II, and the ethnically segregated neighborhoods of today. Some are taught to hate other ethnic groups, some have ...

Philanthropic activity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Philanthropic activity - Essay Example The event falls on the National Child Abuse Awareness month, and its venue is Patsy’s House, a Children’s Advocacy Center. My participation in the event was on 2015, March 28, at around 12:25 noon-2:00pm. My participation location was at Patterson Honda, Old Jacksboro Highway. I helped raise funds for the African Student Organization, by donating to the pinwheel program. I made a $20 donation to the organization, helping raise funds for the event. I also took my beloved dog with me, which I let the kids play with as they enjoyed themselves. I indulged in philanthropy to help raise funds for the organization, playing my societal role in bettering the lives of other individuals. I hope to participate in other charitable activities, as my previous attendance made me feel better about myself. I felt appreciated by seeing the joy and happiness depicted in those kids, developing and unquenchable urge to participate even further. Verification of my service can be provided by Onyinye, who was a fellow participant. Her contact information is as presented

Registered Nurse, Psychiatric Specialty Research Paper

Registered Nurse, Psychiatric Specialty - Research Paper Example These functions include: assistance during surgeries, administration of medications, monitoring vital signs, monitoring for side-effects of surgeries and/or medications, and also monitoring for complications. Aside from these assistive functions however, these nurses also carry out independent nursing functions, functions which do not need to be ordered by doctors or other health professionals (Temple, 2012). For psychiatric nursing, nursing care involves the administration of psychiatric drugs, observing patient symptoms, including extra-pyramidal symptoms, providing therapeutic care, carrying out suicide watch, and preventing self-harm (Temple, 2012). In order to be RNs, a state licensure exam is often needed. Each state has its own licensure examination and has its own requisite for practice. II. Education and Certification The basic requirement for a career as a registered nurse is to pass the licensure examination in the state where one desires to practice (Nazarko, 2004). Befor e the licensure examination is taken however, the applicant needs to finish first a Bachelor’s Degree in Nursing. ... The National Council Licensure Examination (NCLEX) is also a requirement for entry into the registered nursing career. As was mentioned above, the examinations vary with each state, and depending on the entry requirements for each state, practice can include other licensed nurses from other states (Rosdahl and Kowalski, 2007). The cost of education for a career in registered nursing varies with each state and for each country. In the US however, Lee (2012) discusses that the average cost for 4 years tuition for a Bachelor’s degree in nursing is $26,340 in a public university, and for a private university, about $100,572 (Lee, 2012). This is the comparable tuition rate for nursing. The University of Washington for example, estimates $28,000 for state residents and $93,000 for non-state residents for their BS Nursing degrees. An ivy-league school like the University of Pennsylvania averages about $150,000 for its nursing program (Lee, 2012). Aside from the tuition, other academi c requirements like books, laboratory and administrative fees are also essential. Other costs also accrue in terms of living arrangements, including housing, parking, and other living expenses which would vary depending on the student’s circumstances and the country or state where the student is studying (Lee, 2012). Registered psychiatric nurses have to go additional training and certifications in psychiatric nursing (APNA, 2012). These nurses need a Master’s Degree in psychiatric mental health nursing. Doctorate degrees in psychiatric nursing are also options for interested RNs. Such degrees would allow them to participate in teaching, research, and in administration (APNA, 2012).

ECONOMICS FOR BUSINESS Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

ECONOMICS FOR BUSINESS - Coursework Example While these were being implemented, their application had to be prioritised so that the government would offer what was socially and economically healthy to the citizens. These policies were to be implemented to improve the supply side structure of the economy and, therefore, touched on the firms, markets and industries. In this, the government aimed at improving the efficiency of firms, its productivity efficiency and effectiveness as it argued that much of the things that made the country to lag behind were caused by micro economic factors and not majorly from the external environment. The government minimised the distortions that apply in the market so that it remains competitive and productive and have a more efficient allocation of resources. This locative efficiency has allowed the resources to flow to areas where they are used more efficiently. The tariff protections have been removed from the industries which are inefficient. This has allowed the diversion of resources to areas which are more productive and, therefore, increasing the output. The government has subsidised the costs of importation of the new technology in a bid to increase the efficiency in production with minimum costs. This has been the case as the technically efficient industries have had reduced use of resources of which has helped to shift them to other areas of the economy. The reduction of government regulations helped the producers to venture into new markets and to respond quickly to the changing patterns in the economy and demands that come with it. This has set up the pace for the introduction of new technologies and inventions as well as bringing about competition that is fit for the structural changes. The government adopted the trade practices act that is meant to reduce competition through the collusive prices. This has also enabled new firms to enter the market and compete with the already existing firms. The government has removed the rigid regulations which used to control the market movements and has left the flow of the market been regulated by the demand and supply forces. The deregulations included the floatation of the dollar plus the removal of the control of RBA on the banks. These deregulations extended to the transport and telecommunication industries. This led to greater efficiency and productivity in these sectors, which was reflected in the whole economy. These were highlighted in the national economic reform policy which dated back to 1995. The government set up policies to ensure corporatisation and privatisation. This has brought about structural changes in the government business enterprises and has, therefore, ended up working independently from the governmen t eradicating political interference in their working. Industries like Qantas and Telstra have been privatised to be more competitive. The government carried out reforms in the labour market, where there arose a

Fair Representation of Financial Statements

Fair Representation of Financial Statements 1. INTRODUCTION The Financial Reporting Standards Board was formed to resolve the problems faced by the international financial reporting regiment. In particular, it hopes to promote the standardization of international accounting standards through its International Accounting Standards (IASs) to facilitate transactions and improve financial markets. Underscoring the FRSBs philosophy is to enable the fair presentation of financial statements. This report discusses this concept and evaluates whether the application of a standardized accounting reporting regiment would achieve its objectives with a critical examination of some accounting standards. 2. FAIR PRESENTATION DEFINED Whenever we mention the fair presentation of financial statements, we are referring to the accounting concept of true and fair view. The phrase true and fair in an accounting context does not have the same meaning as true and fair in a general context. Thus, true in an accounting context does not mean in accordance with the facts or not false and fair in an accounting context does not mean just or unbiased. The most generally accepted interpretation of true and fair in an accounting context is that accounts are true and fair if they are prepared and presented in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. Thus courts have held that accounts based on historical cost present a true and fair view. Riley has pointed out that the various Companies Acts require the presentation of a true and fair view and not the true and fair view. The implication is that in a particular circumstance no single view is true and fair but that there are several views each of which is true and fair. Presumably, any generally accepted accounting method provides a true and fair view. There are some who argue that different accounting standards does not inhibit the adoption of fair presentation while others believe that a uniform international standard like IAS is the best means of achieving fair presentation of financial statements. 3. THE CASE FOR DIFFERENT ACCOUNTING STANDARDS 3.1 Diversity is Desirable It has been argued by some that a range of accounting methods is desirable because of the diverse circumstances of different businesses. In some circumstances one method would be desirable and in other circumstances some other method would be most appropriate. Diverse accounting methods are necessary because of diverse circumstances. For example, it could be argued that when a non-controlling interest in another company is acquired and where there is a substantial influence over its policies, the equity method would reflect the circumstances more accurately than simply showing the investment at cost. Given a variety of accounting methods, it is argued that management should choose the one which best reflects the unique circumstances of the situation. The ability to choose the most appropriate method should lead to comparability of accounting reports. More meaningful comparisons would be possible because accounting reports reflect the circumstances in each case. The independent auditor should ensure that management selects the most appropriate method for the presentation of a true and fair view. If management does not choose the best method, the auditor will not confirm the presentation of a true and fair view and a qualified audit report should result. 3.2 Arguments Against International Financial Reporting Standards Just as there are many compelling arguments in favour of IAS, there are also equally compelling arguments against it. One of the major criticisms against IFRS is that poorly developed and developing countries view it as a form of imposition of rules or neo-colonization by economically superior countries (Mednick, 1991). Secondly, standardization goes against the inherently flexible nature of accounting. One of the key principles of accounting is substance over form, so providing international standards would be contrary to this. When accounting rules are standardized or harmonized, they cannot possibly be flexible enough to fit into the enormous scope of different national situations, legal systems, stages of economic growth and cultural differences. Instead of aiding progress, such rigid and inflexible standards may actually hinder it. Next, some experts argue that it will be very difficult for international accounting standards bodies like the IASB to reach a universal consensus on some issues. As a result, concessions and compromises will have to be made so that it becomes acceptable to the international community (Berton, 2000). When this happens, the standards become inadequate and permissive. Another argument against international accounting standards is that it could be dangerous as the standards may erode profits and cause volatility in the balance sheets of the companies (Parker, 2002). As a result, companies need to educate their investors about the effects of international accounting standards on the reported profits and liabilities. Finally, some have expressed concern that international standardization or harmonization may cause standard overload. Companies that have to deal with social, political, national and economic pressure will be overextended to comply with the more complex and expensive international requirements. This may add to operating costs. 4. THE CASE FOR INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS 4.1 Problems with Diversity There is the availability of a wide choice of accounting methods. For many transactions, accountants are able to choose from a selection of accounting methods each of which is equally acceptable and which often give widely different results. However, there are two main types of criticism leveled against this kind of diversity. One, it is suggested that the availability of several acceptable alternative accounting methods for a single transaction could make the accounting reports of different companies non-comparable. Differences in reported results could reflect different accounting procedures rather than different performances. For example, suppose that Company A expensed all research and development expenditure, used FIFO for inventory and depreciated its assets on a straight-line basis. Any differences in the reported profits and balance sheets of the two companies would be due, at least in part, to differences in accounting procedures and any assessment of relative performance and financial position would be difficult to make. The critics argue that diversity in accounting methods reduce the utility of accounting reports by measuring corporate performance in different ways. Two, it is also suggested that the availability of different accounting methods allows management to choose those methods which give the desired result. In other words, profits could be manipulated by the choice of accounting method. If management wants lower profits, conservative accounting procedures could be used. Choosing accounting procedures to satisfy management objectives is sometimes described as creative accounting. In America, researchers have found substantial evidence of creative accounting. The critics regard creative accounting as particularly bad and conclude that financial statements cannot be used with any confidence to measure or compare managerial performance. The common element of these two criticisms is that the availability of a choice of accounting methods leads to a lack of comparability in accounting reports. 4.2 Increased Disclosure The second argument for IAS is to seek increased disclosure. Two types of increased disclosure are suggested. One, it is argued that the problems of diversity could be at least partially overcome by detailed disclosure of accounting method. Under this proposal, accounting reports would include a statement of the methods used to compute depreciation, unearned income, inventory and so on. It is suggested that this additional data would enable statement users to recast the accounting reports into a form suitable for comparison with the reports of other years or other companies. Two, it is suggested that where an accounting method is different from that used in the previous report, the fact of the change of method and the effect of the change on reported profits or balance sheet items should both be disclosed. With this additional information statement users would be able to restate the accounting reports of a company to make them comparable on an interpreted basis. The effect of creative accounting would be disclosed. It should be noted that the increased disclosure response leaves companies and their auditors with a choice from a range of accounting methods. Diversity in accounting method is not reduced. The increased disclosure allows statement users to make accounting reports comparable by recasting them in the form they need. Increased disclosure is a solution to the problem of diversity can be criticized on the grounds that the benefits may not be shared equally by all statement users. It requires a statement user with accounting skills to recast financial reports on a comparable basis. Statement users without access to these skills would receive no benefits from these additional disclosures. Indeed, they may be worse off as sophisticated statement users recast the financial reports and to make better decisions. Any solution to the diversity problem which places the one on statement users and which could therefore discriminates against a group of users is clearly unsatisfactory. 4.3 Increased Uniformity It is also widely believed that a universal adoption of IAS would contribute to uniformity of financial statements internationally. When different standards are used, it is sometimes difficult to compare the financial performance of two companies. Comparability would eliminate misunderstandings about the reliability of foreign financial statements and would remove one of the most important impediments to the flow of international investment. Narrowing the range of choice of accounting methods is usually described as increasing uniformity. In most cases, increased uniformity is achieved by issuing statements of accounting principles or standards which specify the accounting method for a particular transaction or event. Increased uniformity means that the same accounting methods are likely to be used in the same circumstances by different companies and at different times. The onus is on management and accountants rather than statement users. There are several arguments used to support the case for greater uniformity of accounting method. Firstly, the most important argument is that uniformity of accounting procedures will allow comparisons of accounting reports. Similar situations will be reported in a similar way and results will be directly comparable. Any difference in reported results will be due to differences in the circumstances and not in the accounting method. Secondly, many accountants believe that increased uniformity would make their jobs much easier. Choosing an accounting procedure is for many accountants time consuming and difficult. It may lead to conflict between management which wants creative accounting and accountants who believe that another method is more appropriate. With uniformity, the chance of conflict over accounting method would be reduced. Thirdly, with uniformity, accountants would be better able to defend their procedures in court. Because their choices would be limited, they could not be accused or choosing an accounting method to meet the needs of any particular group. This in an important consideration for accountants. 4.4 Cost Benefits There are numerous financial benefits of having IAS. The first is that it decreases the cost of data collection (Choi et al, 1999). Time and money will be saved on consolidating divergent financial information when more than one set of reports is required to comply with the different national laws or practice. Secondly, it is believed that the ease of comparison of information and the reduced cost of collecting data will help spur the development of capital markets through the inflow of foreign capital (Don and Thomas, 1995). Investors, financial analysts and foreign leaders will be able to understand the financial statements of foreign companies and they would be able to compare the investment opportunities that will assist them to make the correct investment decision. This in turn will also facilitate the movement of funds. As taxes are levied on the total income of a business, it would be of great help to national tax authorities around the world if net income was calculated on si milar accounting principles and practices. In addition, this will provide firms with a competitive advantage. International accounting and disclosure standards would make it easier to conduct the competitive and operational analyses needed to run a business. It will also become easier for top management to manage important relationship with stakeholders such as customers and suppliers. Multinational corporations will benefit the most and it will also become easier for them to fulfil the disclosure requirements for international stock exchanges. Finally, harmonization of accounting standards will decrease audit costs and increase the efficiency of the audit (Choi et al, 1999). 5. DIFFERENCES IN ACCOUNTING TREATMENT To better understand how universal adoption of IAS would eliminate differences in accounting treatment, let us consider some examples of divergent accounting treatment. For this purpose, a comparison is made between IASs and the United States Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (US-GAAP). 5.1 Changes in Depreciation or Amortization Method According to IAS 16 and IAS 38, there is an explicit stipulation that changes in depreciation or amortization method must be accounted for as a change in estimate. However, US-GAAP treats these changes as changes in policy by demonstrating the cumulative effect of the change in the income statement. These require retrospective changes, which are not required by IAS. 5.2 Impairment of Assets IAS 36 uses a discounted impairment trigger, because the value in use is by definition a discounted value. Reversal of impairment losses recognized in prior years is allowed. On the other hand, in the US-GAAP, if the sum of the expected cash flows is less than the carrying amount of the asset, the entity shall recognize an impairment loss. This means that the impairment trigger is an undiscounted amount. Reversal of previously recognized impairment losses is prohibited for assets to be held and used. 5.3 Impairment of Goodwill According to IAS, the recoverable amount of a cash generating unit should be compared with the carrying value of its net assets. Resulting impairment losses should first be deducted from goodwill and then from other assets on a pro-rata basis. However, US-GAAP requires determination of the implied fair value of the goodwill. If the implied fair value is less than its carrying value, this carrying amount should be reduced. Such a goodwill impairment test cannot affect the carrying values of other assets. 5.4 Business Combinations in-process Research and Development For IAS, purchased in-process research and development that meets the recognition criteria for an intangible asset should be valued at fair value. Even if it is not a separate identifiable intangible asset, the IAS method results in capitalization of those costs as part of goodwill. Under US-GAAP, purchased in-process research and development assets both tangible and intangible should be charged to expense at acquisition date if no alternative future use for the assets can be determined. 6. INCONSISTENCIES IN IAS Although IASs are deemed to improve fair reporting, there are occasional inconsistencies that often hamper their effectiveness. Indeed, the IASB has tried to correct some of these inconsistencies, but there are still flaws in the overall framework. The following are some of the inconsistencies that have been corrected in recent years. 6.1 Classification of Tonnage Taxes in IAS 112 In some countries, shipping companies are allowed to choose to be taxed on the basis of tonnage transported, tonnage capacity or a notional profit instead of the standard corporate income tax regulations. In the past, tonnage capacity was regarded as a basis for taxable income. This is based on a flawed assumption. Income taxes are calculated on taxable profit which implies net, rather than gross amount. Taxes either on tonnage transported or tonnage capacity are based on gross instead of net amount. Therefore, such taxes would not be considered income taxes and would not be presented as part of tax expenses in the statement of comprehensive income. 6.2 Accounting for Sales Cost in IAS 38 Some problems arise among real estate developers. IAS 2 does not permit selling costs to be capitalized as inventory if the real estate units are considered to be inventory. However, other standards conclude that some direct and incremental costs recoverable as a result of securing a specifically identifiable contract with a customer may be capitalized in narrow circumstances, for example in IAS 11 (Paragraph 21) and IAS 18 (Appendix 14(b)(iii)). Hence, it is not possible to reach a conclusion on the appropriate accounting for board categories of selling and marketing costs in all circumstances. 6.3 Disclosure of Idle Assets and Construction in Progress in IAS 16 In accordance with paragraph 74(b) of IAS 16, an entity is required to disclose the amount of expenditures recognized in the carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment in the course of its construction. Paragraph 79(a) encourages an entity to disclose the amount of property, plant and equipment that is temporarily idle. Paragraph 112(c) of IAS 1 requires an entity to provide in the notes information that is not presented elsewhere in the financial statements that is relevant to their understanding. The disclosure regarding idle assets might be particularly relevant in the current economic environment. Therefore, IASB should review all disclosures encouraged with the objective of either confirming that they are required or eliminating them. 7. CONCLUSION To end, all accountants agree that the fair presentation of accounting and financial statements is important. However, what exactly constitutes fair presentation is a contentious and debatable matter. Some insist that adopting IFRS is the best way of achieving this objective while others assert that substance is more important than form and that it is perfectly acceptable to use different accounting standards so long as it shows some form of fair presentation. While I personally believe that it would be ultimately benefit the international financial community to have one standard to prevent confusion, its implementation is still some years away.